Truthbearer is a term used to designate entities that are either true or false and nothing else. The acceptance that some things are true while others are false raises the question of the nature of such things. Since there is no agreement on the matter, the term truthbearer is used to be neutral among the various theories. Candidates truthbearers include propositions, sentences, sentence-tokens, statements, ideas, beliefs, thoughts, intuitions, utterances, and judgments but different writers exclude one or more of these, deny their existence, argue that they are true only in a derivative sense, assert or assume that the terms are synonymous, [1] or seek to avoid addressing their distinction, or do not clarify it.[2]

Contents

Statements

Many authors use the term statement as truthbearers. There is no single definition or usage. Sometimes it is used to mean a meaningful-declarative-sentence (MDS) itself; sometimes it is used to mean what is asserted by a meaningful-declarative-sentence. It is not always clear in which sense the word is used. This provides two possible definitions for the purposes of discussion as below.

The concept of a statement was introduced by Strawson in the 1950s.[3],[4],[5]

Consider the following:

On the assumption that the same person wrote Waverley and Ivanhoe, the two distinct patterns of characters (MDS) I and J make the same statement but express different propositions. The pairs of (MDS) (K, L) & (M, N) have different meanings, but they are not necessarily contradictory, since K & L may have been asserted by different people, and M & N may have been asserted about different conductors.

What these examples show is that we cannot identify that which is true or false (the statement) with the sentence used in making it; for the same sentence may be used to make different statements, some of them true and some of them false. (Strawson, P.F. (1952)[5])

This suggests:

Theory S1

All and only statements are meaningful-declarative-sentences.

Theory S2

All and only meaningful-declarative-sentences can be used to make statements

Statement is not always used in one or other of these ways.

Arguments for Theory S1

Criticisms of Theory S1

Arguments for Theory S2

Propositions

Many authors[6] use the term proposition as truthbearers. There is no single definition or usage. Sometimes it is used to mean a meaningful declarative sentence itself; sometimes it is used to mean the meaning of a meaningful declarative sentence.[7] This provides two possible definitions for the purposes of discussion as below (wherein mds is written as shorthand for meaningful declarative sentence).

Theory P1:

All and only mdss are propositions

Theory P2:

A token-mds expresses a proposition; two token-mdss which have the same meaning express the same proposition; two token-mdss with different meanings express different propositions.

(cf Wolfram 1989[8], p. 21)

Proposition is not always used in one or other of these ways.

Criticisms of Theory P1.

Criticisms of Theory P2

see also Willard Van Orman Quine Willard Van Orman Quine (known to intimates as "Van") was an American philosopher and logician in the analytic tradition. From 1930 until his death 70 years later, Quine was continuously affiliated with Harvard University in one way or another, first as a student, then as a professor of philosophy and a teacher of mathematics, and, Proposition In logic and philosophy, the term proposition refers to both (a) the "content" or "meaning" of a meaningful declarative sentence or (b) the pattern of symbols, marks, or sounds that make up a meaningful declarative sentence. The meaning of a proposition includes that it has the quality or property of being either true or false,, The Russell-Myhill Antinomy, also known as the Principles of Mathematics Appendix B Paradox[1]

Sentences

As Aristotle pointed out, since some sentences are questions, commands, or meaningless, not all can be truthbearers. If in the proposal "What makes the sentence Snow is white true is the fact that snow is white" it is assumed that sentences like Snow is white are truthbearers, then it would be more clearly stated as "What makes the mds Snow is white true is the fact that snow is white".

Theory S1:

All and only meaningful-declarative-sentence are truthbearers

Criticisms Some mdss will be both truth and false, contrary to our definition of truthbearer, e.g. (i) the liar-paradox sentences such as "This sentence is false". (see Fisher 2008[11]) (ii) Time, place and person dependent sentences e.g. "It is noon". "This is London", "I'm Spartacus".

Anyone may ..ascribe truth and falsity to the deterministic propositional signs we here call utterances. But if he takes this line, he must, like Leibniz, recognise that truth cannot be an affair soely of actual utterances, since it makes sense to talk of the discovery of previously un-formulated truths. (Kneale, W&M (1962)[12])

Revision To escape the time, place and person dependent cricism the theory can be revised, making use or the Type-token distinction In philosophy and knowledge representation, the type-token distinction is a distinction that separates an abstract concept from the objects which are particular instances of the concept. For example, the particular bicycle in your garage is a token of the type of thing known as "The bicycle." Whereas, the bicycle in your garage is in a [13], as follows

Theory S2:

All and only token-mds are truthbearers

Criticisms (i) S2 prevents sentences which are mds-types from being truth bearers. If all mds-types typographically identical to "The whole is greater than the part" are true then it surely follow that the mds-type "The whole is greater than the part" is true (just as all mds-tokens typographically identical to "The whole is greater than the part" are English entails the mds-types "The whole is greater than the part" is English)

Thoughts

Frege (1919) argued that an indicative sentence in which we communicate or state something, contains both a thought and an assertion, it expresses the thought, and the thought is the sense of the sentence.[14]

Glossary of Terms used in this article

Some distinctions and terminology as used in this article, based on Wolfram 1989[8], Chapter 2 Section1) follows. It should be understood that the terminology described is not always used in the ways set out, and are it is introduced solely for the purposes of discussion in this article. Use is made of the type-token In philosophy and knowledge representation, the type-token distinction is a distinction that separates an abstract concept from the objects which are particular instances of the concept. For example, the particular bicycle in your garage is a token of the type of thing known as "The bicycle." Whereas, the bicycle in your garage is in a and use-mention distinctions.

Characters

By character we will mean a typographic character (printed or written), a unit of speech, a phoneme, a series of dots and dashes (as sounds, magnetic pulses, printed or written), a flag or stick held at a certain angle, a gesture, a sign as use in sign language, a pattern or raised indentations (as in brail) etc. in other words the sort of things that are commonly described as the elements of an alphabet.

Words

A: This toucan can catch a can. B: If you have a bucket, then you have a pail. C: I promise to be good. D: He is grnd.

A word-token is a pattern of characters. The pattern of characters A (above) contains six word-tokens The pattern of characters D (above) contains three word-tokens

A meaningful-word-token is a meaningful word-token. grnd in D is not meaningful.

A word-type is an identical pattern of characters (or units of speech). The pattern of characters A (above) contains five word-types (the word-token can occurring twice)

Two word-tokens which mean the same are of the same word-meaning. Only those word-tokens which are meaningful-word-tokens can have the same meaning as another word-token. The pattern of characters A (above) contains six word-meanings. Although it contains only five word-types, the two occurrences of the word-token can have different meanings. On the assumption that bucket and pail mean the same, the pattern of characters B (above) contains ten word-tokens, seven word-types, and six word-meanings.

Sentences

In grammar a sentence can be a declaration, an explanation, a question, a command. In logic a declarative sentence is considered to be a sentence that can be used to communicate truth. Some sentences which are grammatically declarative are not logically so.

E: Are you happy? F: Cats blows the wind G: This stone is thinking about Vienna H: This circle is square I: The author of Waverly is dead J: The author of Ivanhoe is dead K: I am less than six foot tall L: I am over six foot tall M: The conductor is a bachelor N: The conductor is married O: The conductor is an unmarried man. P: I'm Spartacus. Q: I'm Spartacus. R: Spartacus sum. I: He's Spartacus. J: Spartacus did not eat all spinach in London on Feb 11th 2009.

A sentence-token is a pattern of word-tokens. The pattern of characters D (above) is a sentence-token because grnd is a word-token (albeit not a meaningful word-token.)

A mds is a meaningful sentence-token or a meaningful pattern of meaningful-word-tokens. The pattern of characters D (above) is not a sentence-token because grnd is not a meaningful word-token.

Two sentence-tokens are of the same sentence-type1 if they are identical patterns of meaningful word-tokens characters, e.g. the sentence-tokens P and Q above are of the same sentence-type1.

A declarative-sentence-token is a sentence-token which that can be used to communicate truth or convey information. The pattern of characters E (above) is not a declarative-sentence-token because it interrogative not declarative.

A mds-type is a meaningful declarative-sentence-token. The pattern of characters F (above) is not a token-mds because it is grammatically ill-formed The pattern of characters G (above) is not a token-mds because thinking cannot be predicated of a stone The pattern of characters H (above) is not a token-mds because it is internally inconsistent The pattern of characters D (above) is not a token-mds because it contains a word-token (grnd) which is not a meaningful-word-token

Two mds-tokens are of the same mds-type if they mean the same. The patterns of characters M and O are token-mdss/meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens/ of the same meaningful-declarative-sentence-type because they mean the same.

A nonsense-declarative-sentence-token is a declarative-sentence-token which is not a meaningful-declarative-sentence-token. The patterns of characters F, G & H above are nonsense-declarative-sentence-tokens because they are declarative-sentence-tokens but not meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens. The pattern of characters D (above) is not a nonsense-declarative-sentence-token because it is not a declarative-sentence-token because it contains a word-token (grnd) which is not a meaningful-word-token.

A mds-token-use occurs when and only when a mds-token is used declaratively, rather than, say, mentioned. The pattern of characters J (above) is a mds-token but, in all probability, it has never be used declaratively and thus there have been no mds-token-uses of J. A mds-token be used zero to many times. Two mds-tokens-uses of the same {mds-token are identical if and only if they are identical events in time and space with identical users.

Notes

References

  1. ^ eg
    • "In symbolic logic, a statement (also called a proposition) is a complete declarative sentence, which is either true or false." Vignette 17 Logic, Truth and Language
    • "A statement is just that; it is a declaration about something—anything—a declaration which can be evaluated as either true or false. "I am reading this sentence" is a statement, and if indeed you have looked at it and comprehended its meaning, then it is safe to say that that statement can be evaluated as true."Fundamental Logic Concepts: Statement
  2. ^ eg * "Some philosophers claim that declarative sentences of natural language have underlying logical forms and that these forms are displayed by formulas of a formal language. Other writers hold that (successful) declarative sentences express propositions; and formulas of formal languages somehow display the forms of these propositions." Shapiro, Stewart (2008). Edward N. Zalta. ed. "Classical Logic" in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#1.
  3. ^ Strawson, PF (1950). "On referring". Mind 9. reprinted in Strawson 1971 and elsewhere
  4. ^ Strawson, PF (1957). "Propositions, Concepts and Logical Truths". The Philosophical Quarterly 7. reprinted in Strawson, P.F. (1971). Logico-Linguistic Papers. Methuen.
  5. ^ a b Strawson, P.F. (1952). Introduction to Logical Theory. Methuen: London. pp. 4.
  6. ^ eg Russell, Wittgenstein
  7. ^ "Philosopher's tolerance towards propositions has been encouraged partly by ambiguity in the term 'proposition'. The term often is used simply for the sentences themselves, declarative sentences; and then some writers who do use the term for meanings of sentences are careless about the distinction between sentences and their meanings" Quine 1970, p. 2
  8. ^ a b Wolfram, Sybil (1989). Routledge.
  9. ^ i.e. when expressed by a token-mds made by Spartacus, and when expressed by somebody other than Spartacus
  10. ^ "Philosophers who favor propositions have said that propositions are needed because truth only of propositions, not of sentences [read meaningful-declarative-sentences Ed], is intelligible. An unsympathetic answer is that we can explain truth of sentences to be propositional in their own terms: sentences are true whose meanings are true propositions. Any failure of intelligibilty here is already his own fault." Quine 1970 page 10
  11. ^ Fisher (2008). Philosophy of Logic.
  12. ^ Kneale, W&M (1962). The development of logic. Oxford. page 593
  13. ^ see Wolfram, Sybil (1989) generally on the application of type-token distinction
  14. ^ Frege (1919) Die Gedanke trans AM and Marcelle Quinton in Frege, G (1956). "The thought: A logical Enquiry". Mind 65. reprinted in Strawson 1967.
Philosophy of language Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of language. As a topic, the philosophy of language for analytic philosophers is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. For continental philosophers, however,
Related articles: Analytic philosophy Analytic philosophy is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, the overwhelming majority of university philosophy departments identify themselves as "analytic" departments. Analytic • Language Language is a term most commonly used to refer to so called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. By extension the term also refers to the type of human thought process which creates and uses language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation, maintenance and use of systems of • Philosophy of information The philosophy of information is the area of research that studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of computer science, information technology, and philosophy • Philosophical logic Philosophical logic is the study of the more specifically philosophical aspects of logic. The term contrasts with philosophy of logic, metalogic, and mathematical logic; and since the development of mathematical logic in the late nineteenth century, it has come to include most of those topics traditionally treated by logic in general.[citation • Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words • Pragmatics Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, and linguistics. It studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the • Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of using language to communicate effectively. It involves three audience appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos, as well as the five canons of rhetoric: invention or discovery, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Along with grammar and logic or dialectic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From ancient • Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning, usually in language. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many • Formal semantics Formal semantics is the study of the semantics, or interpretations, of formal and also natural languages. A formal language can be defined apart from any interpretation of it. This is done by designating a set of symbols and a set of formation rules (also called a formal grammar) which determine which strings of symbols are well-formed formulas • Semiotics In linguistics, semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes , or signification and communication, signs and symbols. It is usually divided into the three following branches:
Concepts in language

Ambiguity Ambiguity is a condition where information can be understood or interpreted in more than one way and is distinct from vagueness, which is a statement about the lack of precision contained or available in the information. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and • Linguistic relativity The linguistic relativity principle is the idea that the varying cultural concepts and categories inherent in different languages affect the cognitive classification of the experienced world in such a way that speakers of different languages think and behave differently because of it. Roger Brown has drawn a distinction between weak linguistic • Meaning The field of semantics is often understood as a branch of linguistics, but non-idealized meaning as a type of semantics is more accurately a branch of psychology and ethics. Meaning in so far is it is objectified by not considering particular situations and the real intentions of speakers and writers examines the ways in which words, phrases, and • Language Language is a term most commonly used to refer to so called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. By extension the term also refers to the type of human thought process which creates and uses language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation, maintenance and use of systems of • Truthbearer • Proposition In logic and philosophy, the term proposition refers to both (a) the "content" or "meaning" of a meaningful declarative sentence or (b) the pattern of symbols, marks, or sounds that make up a meaningful declarative sentence. The meaning of a proposition includes that it has the quality or property of being either true or false, • Use–mention distinction • Concept A concept is a cognitive unit of meaning—an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a "unit of knowledge," built from other units which act as a concept's characteristics. A concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language or symbology[citation needed] such as a single meaning of a term • Categories Categorization is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood. Categorization implies that objects are grouped into categories, usually for some specific purpose. Ideally, a category illuminates a relationship between the subjects and objects of knowledge. Categorization is fundamental in language, • Set A set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Although it was invented at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived. In • Class Philosophers sometimes distinguish classes from types and kinds. We can talk about the class of human beings, just as we can talk about the type , human being, or humanity. How, then, might classes differ from types? One might well think they are not actually different categories of being, but typically, while both are treated as abstract objects, • Intension In linguistics, logic, philosophy, and other fields, an intension is any property or quality connoted by a word, phrase or other symbol. In the case of a word, it is often implied by the word's definition. The term may also refer to all such intensions collectively, although the term comprehension is technically more correct for this • Logical form The form or logical form of an argument is the representation of its sentences using the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical/formal system to display its similarity with all other arguments of the same type • Metalanguage In logic and linguistics, a metalanguage is a language used to make statements about statements in another language which is called the object language. It can refer to any terminology or language used to discuss language itself: a written grammar, for example, or a discussion about language use. Very often expressions in a metalanguage are • Mental representation In contemporary philosophy, specifically in fields of metaphysics such as philosophy of mind and ontology, a mental representation is one of the prevailing ways of explaining and describing the nature of ideas and concepts. According to the representational theory of mind , thinking occurs within an internal system of representation. The • Principle of compositionality In mathematics, semantics, and philosophy of language, the Principle of Compositionality is the principle that the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them. This principle is also called Frege's Principle, because Gottlob Frege is widely credited for the first • Property In modern philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is an attribute of an object; a red object is said to have the property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, able to possess other properties. If, however, for every predicate there is a corresponding property, then properties are subject to Russell's • Sign A sign is an entity which signifies another entity. A natural sign is an entity which bears a causal relation to the signified entity, as thunder is a sign of storm. A conventional sign signifies by agreement, as a full stop signifies the end of a sentence. • Sense and reference The distinction between Sinn and Bedeutung was an innovation of the German philosopher and mathematician Gottlob Frege in his 1892 paper Über Sinn und Bedeutung (On Sense and Reference), which is still widely read today. According to Frege, sense and reference are two different aspects of the meaning of at least some kinds of terms (Frege applied • Speech act Speech act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. The contemporary use of the term goes back to John L. Austin's doctrine of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Many scholars[who?] identify 'speech acts' with illocutionary acts, rather than locutionary or perlocutionary acts. As with the notion of • Symbol A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for "STOP". On maps, crossed sabres may indicate a battlefield. Numerals are symbols for numbers . All language consists of symbols • Entity An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need not be a material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate. Entities are used in system developmental models that display communications and internal • Sentence In the field of linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language, often defined to indicate a grammatical and lexical unit consisting of one or more words that represent distinct concepts. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request or command • Statement In logic a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false. A statement is distinct from a sentence in that a sentence is only one formulation of a statement, whereas there may be many other formulations expressing the same statement. The term "statement" may to refer to a sentence or the idea expressed by a sentence • more...
Theories of language Plato • Confucius • Xun Zi • Aristotle • Stoics • Pyrrhonists • Scholasticism • Thomas Hobbes • Gottfried Leibniz • Johann Herder • Wilhelm von Humboldt • Fritz Mauthner • Paul Ricoeur • Ferdinand de Saussure • Gottlob Frege • Franz Boas • Paul Tillich • Edward Sapir • Leonard Bloomfield • Zhuangzi • Henri

Causal theory of reference A causal theory of reference is any of a family of views about how terms acquire specific referents. Such theories have been used to describe reference as regards all sorts of referring terms, particularly logical terms, proper names, and natural kind terms. In the case of names, for example, a causal theory of reference will typically involve the • Contrast theory of meaning Ernest Gellner in Words and Things, p. 40: "terms derive their meaning from the fact that there are or could be things which fall under them and that there are others which do not." • Contrastivism Contrastivism is an epistemological theory proposed by Jonathan Schaffer that suggests that knowledge attributions have a ternary structure of the form 'S knows that p rather than q'. This is in contrast to the traditional view whereby knowledge attributions have a binary structure of the form 'S knows that p'. Contrastivism was suggested as an • Conventionalism Conventionalism is the philosophical attitude that fundamental principles of a certain kind are grounded on agreements in society, rather than on external reality.[citation needed] Although this attitude is commonly held with respect to the rules of grammar, its application to the propositions of ethics, law, science, mathematics, and logic is • Cratylism Cratylism is a philosophical theory based on the teachings of Cratylus also known as Kratylos. Vaguely exegetical, it holds that the fluid nature of ideas, words, and communications leaves them fundamentally baseless, and possibly unable to support logic and reason • Deconstruction Deconstruction is an approach, introduced by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, which rigorously pursues the meaning of a text to the point of exposing the contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is apparently founded and showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. It is an approach that may be • Descriptivist theory of names Descriptivist theory of names is a view of the nature of the meaning and reference of proper names generally attributed to Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. The theory consists essentially in the idea that the meanings of names are identical to the descriptions associated with them by speakers, while their referents are determined to be the • Direct reference theory A direct reference theory is a theory of meaning that claims that the meaning of an expression lies in what it points out in the world. It stands in contrast to mediated reference theories • Dramatism Dramatism, introduced by rhetorician Kenneth Burke, made its way into the field of communication in the early 1950's as a method for understanding the social uses of language and how to encounter the social and symbolic world of a drama . Dramatism's intent is to offer a logical method for understanding human motives, or why people do what they do • Expressivism Expressivism in meta-ethics is a theory about the meaning of moral language. According to expressivism, sentences that employ moral terms–for example, “It is wrong to torture an innocent human being”–are not descriptive or fact-stating; moral terms such as “wrong,” “good,” or “just” do not refer to real, in-the-world properties • Linguistic determinism • Logical atomism • Logical positivism • Mediated reference theory • Nominalism • Non-cognitivism • Phallogocentrism • Quietism • Relevance theory • Semantic externalism • Semantic holism • Structuralism • Supposition theory • Symbiosism • Theological noncognitivism • Theory of descriptions • Verification theory
Philosophers of language

Plato (Cratylus) • Confucius • Xun Zi • Aristotle • Stoics • Pyrrhonists • Scholasticism • Thomas Hobbes • Gottfried Leibniz • Johann Herder • Wilhelm von Humboldt • Fritz Mauthner • Paul Ricoeur • Ferdinand de Saussure • Gottlob Frege • Franz Boas • Paul Tillich • Edward Sapir • Leonard Bloomfield • Zhuangzi • Henri Bergson • Ludwig Wittgenstein (Philosophical Investigations • Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus) • Bertrand Russell • Rudolf Carnap • Jacques Derrida (Of Grammatology • Limited Inc) • Benjamin Lee Whorf • Gustav Bergmann • J. L. Austin • Noam Chomsky • Hans-Georg Gadamer • Saul Kripke • Alfred Jules Ayer • Donald Davidson • Paul Grice • Gilbert Ryle • P. F. Strawson
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This noble house is one of many as it may seem House Truthbearer is one that is more unique however Once a religous order servants of the Holy Light

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AM I a Christ follower ('Doer', useing Him as my exampel and . Truth Bearer. )? or, as many say; "Of the devel"? Or am i makeing YOU "feel guilty"... YOU Decide! In HIM...red elk.

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A. This is what Paul says in 1 Timothy 3:2: "A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, temperate, sober-minded, of good behaviour, hospitable, able to teach." This seems to imply that those who are not bishops can have more than one wife. Unless he's just forbidding bishops to sin. I suppose it depends on what was allowed in Paul's time where he lived.
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