Philosophical logic is the study of the more specifically philosophical aspects of logic. The term contrasts with philosophy of logic Following the developments in Formal logic with symbolic logic in the late nineteenth century and mathematical logic in the twentieth, topics traditionally treated by logic not being part of formal logic have tended to be termed either philosophy of logic or philosophical logic if no longer simply logic, metalogic Metalogic is the study of the metatheory of logic. While logic is the study of the manner in which logical systems can be used to decide the correctness of arguments, metalogic studies the properties of the logical systems themselves. According to Geoffrey Hunter, while logic concerns itself with the "truths of logic," metalogic concerns, and mathematical logic Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics with close connections to computer science and philosophical logic. The field includes both the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics. The unifying themes in mathematical logic include the study of the expressive power of formal systems and the; and since the development of mathematical logic in the late nineteenth century, it has come to include most of those topics traditionally treated by logic Logic is the study of reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. It is one kind of critical thinking. In philosophy, the study of logic in general.[citation needed] It is concerned with characterizing notions like inference Inference is the process of drawing a conclusion by applying heuristics to observations or hypotheses; or by interpolating the next logical step in an intuited pattern. The conclusion drawn is also called an inference. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic, rational thought, truth, and contents of thoughts, in the most fundamental ways possible, and trying to model them using modern formal logic.[citation needed]
The notions in question include reference A reference, or a references point, is the intensional use of one thing, a point of reference or reference state, to indicate something else[citation needed]. When reference is intended, what the reference points to is called the referent, predication First-order logic is a formal logical system used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. It goes by many names, including: first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory, and predicate logic. First-order logic is distinguished from propositional logic by its use of quantifiers; each, identity In philosophy, identity is whatever makes an entity definable and recognizable, in terms of possessing a set of qualities or characteristics that distinguish it from entities of a different type. Or, in layman's terms, identity is whatever makes something the same or different, truth Truth can have a variety of meanings, from the state of being the case, being in accord with a particular fact or reality, being in accord with the body of real things, events, actuality, or fidelity to an original or to a standard, truth "behind" everything, the ontological truth. In archaic usage it could be fidelity, constancy or, negation In logic and mathematics, negation is an operation on propositions. For example, in classical logic negation is normally interpreted by the truth function that takes truth to falsity and vice versa. In intuitionistic logic, according to the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation, the negation of a proposition P is the proposition whose, quantification Quantification has several distinct senses. In mathematics and empirical science, it is the act of counting and measuring that maps human sense observations and experiences into members of some set of numbers. Quantification in this sense is fundamental to the scientific method, existence In common usage, existence is the world we are aware of through our senses, and that persists independently without them. In academic philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning, being contrasted with essence, which specifies different forms of existence as well as different identity conditions for objects and properties. Philosophers, necessity In U.S. criminal law, necessity may be either a possible justification or an exculpation for breaking the law. Defendants seeking to rely on this defense argue that they should not be held liable for their actions as a crime because their conduct was necessary to prevent some greater harm and when that conduct is not excused under some other more, definition A definition is a passage that explains the meaning of a term , or a type of thing. The term to be defined is the definiendum (plural definienda). A term may have many different senses or meanings. For each such specific sense, a definiens (plural definientia) is a cluster of words that defines it and entailment In logic, entailment is a relation between sets of sentences and a sentence. Typically entailment is defined in terms of necessary truth preservation: some set T of sentences entails a sentence A if and only if it is necessary that A be true whenever each member of T is true.[citation needed]
Philosophical logic is not concerned with the psychological processes connected with thought, or with emotions, images and the like. It is concerned only with those entities — thoughts, sentences, or propositions — that are capable of being true and false. To this extent, though, it does intersect with philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is a branch of modern analytic philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body problem, i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as the central issue in and philosophy of language Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of language. As a topic, the philosophy of language for analytic philosophers is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. For continental philosophers, however,. Gottlob Frege Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege was a German mathematician who became a logician and philosopher. He was one of the founders of modern logic, and made major contributions to the foundations of mathematics. As a philosopher, he is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on the philosophy of language and is regarded by many as the founder of modern philosophical logic.[citation needed]
Not all philosophical logic, however, applies formal logical techniques. A good amount of it (including Grayling's and Colin McGinn Colin McGinn is a British philosopher currently working at the University of Miami. McGinn has also held major teaching positions at Oxford University and Rutgers University. He is best known for his work in the philosophy of mind, though he has written on topics across the breadth of modern philosophy. Chief among his works intended for a general's books cited below) is written in natural language. One definition, popular in Britain, is that philosophical logic is the attempt to solve general philosophical problems that arise when we use or think about formal logic[citation needed]: problems about existence, necessity, analyticity, a prioricity The terms a priori and a posteriori ("subsequent to") are used in philosophy (epistemology) to distinguish two types of knowledge, justifications or arguments. A priori knowledge or justification is independent of experience (for example 'All bachelors are unmarried'); a posteriori knowledge or justification is dependent on experience or, propositions, identity, predication, truth. Philosophy of logic Following the developments in Formal logic with symbolic logic in the late nineteenth century and mathematical logic in the twentieth, topics traditionally treated by logic not being part of formal logic have tended to be termed either philosophy of logic or philosophical logic if no longer simply logic, on the other hand, would tackle metaphysical Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that is not easily defined. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world. Someone who studies metaphysics would be called either a metaphysicist or a metaphysician and epistemological Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions: problems about entailment, validity, and proof. So it could be said that philosophy of logic is a branch of philosophy but philosophical logic belongs to the domain of logic (though logic is itself a branch of philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word "philosophy" comes from the).[citation needed]
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Truth
Main article: Truth Truth can have a variety of meanings, from the state of being the case, being in accord with a particular fact or reality, being in accord with the body of real things, events, actuality, or fidelity to an original or to a standard, truth "behind" everything, the ontological truth. In archaic usage it could be fidelity, constancy orTheories of truth
The Correspondence Theory
The correspondence theory is the "default" theory of truth. It's the one most people think is obvious. According to the correspondence theory, a claim is true if it corresponds to what is so (the "facts" or "reality") and false if it does not correspond to what is so. Most scientists and many philosophers hold some version of the correspondence theory of truth.
Example: The statement "The opera Aida had its first performance in Cairo" is true just in case the opera Aida had its first performance in Cairo, and false otherwise. "Snow is white" is true just in case snow is white.
Problems: Is the correspondence theory itself true? If so, what does it correspond to?
How do we figure out what is so? This latter question belongs to metaphysics. A metaphysical realist will hold that the reality that "corresponds" is objective and mind-independent. An idealist may hold that it is objective yet not mind-independent.
You may think it is easy to figure out what is so. In the next Part of the Wikipedia, we will see the overwhelming psychological evidence that there is no such thing as "pure" perception or "pure" linguistic description. If everybody comes from somewhere, nobody has complete God-like objectivity. So some people have rejected the correspondence theory because they say we simply can't discover what is so in any "objective" way.[1]
The Pragmatic Theory
Main article: Pragmatic theory of truth Pragmatic theory of truth refers to those accounts, definitions, and theories of the concept truth that distinguish the philosophies of pragmatism and pragmaticism. The conception of truth in question varies along lines that reflect the influence of several thinkers, initially and notably, Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, but See also: Pragmaticism Pragmaticism is a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for his pragmatic philosophy after 1905, in order to distance himself and it from pragmatism, the original name, which had been used in a manner he did not approve of in the "literary journals". Today, outside of philosophy, "pragmatism" is often taken to refer to a, Pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism, in William James' eyes, was that the truth of an idea, and Charles Sanders Peirce Charles Sanders Peirce (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years. It is largely his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics (and his founding ofThe founder of pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism, in William James' eyes, was that the truth of an idea, Charles Sanders Peirce Charles Sanders Peirce (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years. It is largely his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics (and his founding of developed the original pragmatic theory of truth Pragmatic theory of truth refers to those accounts, definitions, and theories of the concept truth that distinguish the philosophies of pragmatism and pragmaticism. The conception of truth in question varies along lines that reflect the influence of several thinkers, initially and notably, Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, but. According to Peirce's pragmatism Pragmaticism is a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for his pragmatic philosophy after 1905, in order to distance himself and it from pragmatism, the original name, which had been used in a manner he did not approve of in the "literary journals". Today, outside of philosophy, "pragmatism" is often taken to refer to a, truth is the (supposed) limit of the beliefs of intelligent inquirers using the scientific method Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of.
Some later versions of pragmatism dropped the hypothesis of the existence of truth. The "pragmatism" of William James William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a medical doctor. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism. He was the brother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James and John Dewey John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophy of pragmatism and of functional psychology. He was a major representative of the was so defective, in the judgment of Charles Sanders Peirce, that Peirce began calling his theory "pragmaticism Pragmaticism is a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for his pragmatic philosophy after 1905, in order to distance himself and it from pragmatism, the original name, which had been used in a manner he did not approve of in the "literary journals". Today, outside of philosophy, "pragmatism" is often taken to refer to a".
The rest of this section discusses versions of pragmatism that were rejected by Peirce.
According to William James William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a medical doctor. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism. He was the brother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James's pragmatic theory, a statement is true if it allows you to interact effectively and efficiently with the cosmos. The less true a belief is, the less it facilitates such interaction. A belief is false if it facilitates no interaction. The originator of this non-Peircian pragmatic theory was the American philosopher William James William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a medical doctor. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism. He was the brother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James. A more recent adherent was Richard Rorty Richard McKay Rorty was an American philosopher. He had a long and diverse academic career, including positions as Stuart Professor of Philosophy at Princeton, Kenan Professor of Humanities at the University of Virginia, and Professor of Comparative Literature at Stanford University. His complex intellectual background gave him a comprehensive and.
Example: My belief that inanimate objects do not spontaneously get up and move about is true because it makes my world more predictable and thus easier to live in. It "works."
Problems: Sometimes unreasonable beliefs "work". A tribe might believe that human sacrifice brings their crops back each year. The crops do come back after the human sacrifice, but not because of the human sacrifice.
The pragmatic theory of truth might invite relativism in the case of beliefs that are compatible with all states of affairs, e.g., religious beliefs. (Someone might say the belief "God exists" is true because it "works for me," i.e., it helps this person "interact more effectively with the cosmos.")
The notion of "more effective and efficient interaction with the cosmos" is objectionably vague.
The pragmatic theory of truth invites the notion that there are degrees of truth (some beliefs might be more effective than others), and thus invites us to reject the law of non-contradiction ("a claim is either true or false").[2]
The Coherence Theory
According to the coherence theory of truth, a statement is true if it is logically consistent with other beliefs that are held to be true. A belief is false if it is inconsistent with (contradicts) other beliefs that are held to be true. We should doubt claims that are currently inconsistent with the rest of our beliefs. Willard Quine is a famous contemporary philosopher who advocates the coherence theory.
Example: we don't believe in solipsism primarily because it contradicts so many of our other beliefs.
Problems: a belief can be consistent with all our other beliefs and yet have no independent supporting evidence. For example, many metaphysical beliefs are consistent with all imaginable states of affairs (e.g., "the universe came into existence five minutes ago complete with historical records and memories").[3]
Truthbearers
Main article: Truthbearer Truthbearer is a term used to designate entities that are either true or false and nothing else. The acceptance that some things are true while others are false raises the question of the nature of such things. Since there is no agreement on the matter, the term truthbearer is used to be neutral among the various theories. Candidates truthbearersSemantics
Main article: Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning, usually in language. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of manyDefinition
Main article: Definition A definition is a passage that explains the meaning of a term , or a type of thing. The term to be defined is the definiendum (plural definienda). A term may have many different senses or meanings. For each such specific sense, a definiens (plural definientia) is a cluster of words that defines itNecessity and analyticity
Main article: Necessary and sufficient condition In logic, the words necessity and sufficiency refer to the implicational relationships between statements. The assertion that one statement is a necessary and sufficient condition of another means that the former statement is true if and only if the latter is truePresuppositions
Main article: Presupposition In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. Examples of presuppositions include:Formal and Natural language
Main articles: Formal language A formal language is a set of words, i.e. finite strings of letters, symbols, or tokens. The set from which these letters are taken is called the alphabet over which the language is defined. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar ; accordingly, words that belong to a formal language are sometimes called well-formed words ( and Natural language In the philosophy of language, a natural language is any language which arises in an unpremeditated fashion as the result of the innate facility for language possessed by the human intellect. A natural language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written. Natural language is distinguished from constructed languagesConsequence
Main article: Logical consequence Logical consequence is a fundamental concept in logic. It is the relation that holds between a set of sentences and a sentence (proposition) when the former "entails" the latter. For example, 'Kermit is green' is said to be a logical consequence of 'All frogs are green' and 'Kermit is a frog', because it would be "self-contradictory&Conditionals
Main article: Material conditional The material conditional, also known as the material implication or truth functional conditional, expresses a property of certain conditionals in logic. In propositional logic, it expresses a binary truth function from truth-values to truth-values. In predicate logic, it can be viewed as a subset relation between the extension of predicatesProbability
Main article: Probability Probability is a way of expressing knowledge or belief that an event will occur or has occurred. In mathematics the concept has been given an exact meaning in probability theory, that is used extensively in such areas of study as mathematics, statistics, finance, gambling, science, and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood ofLiterature
- Goble, Lou, ed., 2001. (The Blackwell Guide to) Philosophical Logic. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20693-0.
- Grayling, A. C., 1997. An Introduction to Philosophical Logic. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19982-9.
- Jacquette, Dale, ed., 2002. A Companion to Philosophical Logic. Oxford Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-4575-7.
- Sainsbury, Mark, 2001. Logical Forms: An Introduction to Philosophical Logic. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21679-0.
- McGinn, Colin. 2000. Logical Properties: Identity, Existence, Predication, Necessity, Truth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926263-2.
- Wolfram, Sybil, 1989. Philosophical Logic: An Introduction. London: Routledge.
- Journal of Philosophical Logic, Springer Science+Business Media
References
- ^ http://instruct.westvalley.edu/lafave/Truth_theories.html
- ^ http://instruct.westvalley.edu/lafave/Truth_theories.html
- ^ http://instruct.westvalley.edu/lafave/Truth_theories.html
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These days, he's a soft-spoken, philosophical pianist and composer billed around the world simply as Eldar. He talks about the band, with bassist Armando ...
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Logics of Consequence A Celebration of Nuel Belnap s Work in Philosophical Logic I also owe you a big thanks Nuel
Adam Lamb
ue, 15 Jun 2010 21:59:00 GM
The apostles and early church fathers seemed heavy on . philosophical logic. (there is a link to the laws of logic in my links list). Now I know I have answered much yet but I am getting there. In my original orthodoxy post, I talked about ...
Q. What are the main philosophical currents within the Soviet Union and contemporary People's Rep of China What are the main philosophical schools of thought in contemporary China? Specifically I'm interested in how orthodox Dialectical Materialism is promulgated in the PRC. Based on the way Chinese law and economic academia comes mainly from the Anglo-Saxon tradition, I would guess that Analytical Philosophy is the most influential in universities. Although I suppose Phenomenological philosophy would be more Marxist leaning. Also the CPC has promoted a revival of traditional Chinese philosophy, especially Confucianism. If you could recommend websites books or journal articles, that be great too. I'm more interested in mainstream "official"… [cont.]
Asked by Mike Lukma - Wed Mar 18 14:43:52 2009 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments
A. Fear of freedom, therefore we have to control information and individual thinking. (perhaps that's overly simplistic but I believe that that is the core of the issue) I think that it would be wrong to assume that Chinese institutions are based on Anglo-Saxon ways of thinking. They may have imported certain mechanisms but they implement them in their own unique way. Confucianism is still a very strong influence (though subtle and perhaps even invisible to the outside world). Confucian social structure still pervades much of Chinese culture and that in turn influences a lot of things. For example western ideas such as the rights of the individual are much less followed in China as they see the power of the state being much more… [cont.]
Answered by megalomaniac - Wed Mar 18 14:47:53 2009
